Hydrotherapy Case Essay Example for Free

Hydrotherapy Case Essay Introduction This annotated bibliography is based upon three journal articles, all of which address the question, is hydrotherapy as effective as land based exercise for lower limb conditions? Hydrotherapy, water based exercise performed in a heated pool and will be analysed to determine whether it is an appropriate and beneficial type of physical therapy. Search Process Once the topic of hydrotherapy was of interest, keywords such as effectiveness of hydrotherapy and benefits of hydrotherapy for lower limbs were used in search engines such as Google Scholar and SciVerse. Once articles appeared to be of relevance to the guiding question, the abstracts of each of these articles were read and only those that were easily understood, were interesting and matched closely to the guiding question were selected to be used in the bibliography. After sorting approximately 5 articles that were of relevance to the guiding question, they were then searched for in the VU Library so their full text could be read, as there was only an abstract available when searching through Google Scholar and SciVerse. After reading the 5 articles in full the decision was made on three by how relevant they were to the guiding question and having slight similarities to each other also helped in the decision making process. The three articles that make up the annotated bibliography each compare hydrotherapy to land based exercise for patients suffering from a certain lower limb condition. The first article compares the two types of therapies for patients with osteoarthritis and whether their strength and physical function will be improved by which type of therapy. The second compares hydrotherapy to land based exercise for patients who have undergone a total knee replacement where as the final article bases its investigation on whether water therapy can be as effective as land based exercise for patients who have osteoarthritis in the knee. Each article used a different type of study design. Article 1 Foley, A, Halbert, J, Hewitt, T, Crotty, M, 2003. Does hydrotherapy improve strength and physical function in patients with osteoarthritis—a randomised controlled trial comparing a gym based and a hydrotherapy based strengthening programme. EULAR Journal, 62, 1162-1167. The aim of this article was to compare the effects of a hydrotherapy resistance exercise program with a gym based resistance exercise program focusing on strength and function in the treatment of osteoarthritis. It consisted of participants who were randomised into one of three groups: hydrotherapy (n = 35), gym (n = 35), or control (n = 35). There were 105 participants, 52 (49.5%) were women and 53 males. Having such an even number of both men and women allowed the study to be evenly distributed leaving little judgement of being one gender dominated which may effect the studys results. The mean (SD) age of the sample was 70.9 years. Originally it was decided to have only 22 subjects in each group as a sample size of 66 was required however, the sample size calculation was based on the assumption of an effect size of 1.0 with a level of 0.05 and 90% power. Therefore, to allow for drop outs and injuries, this sample was increased to 35 people in each group. This proved to be beneficial to the study as there were several subjects that discontinued with the study. Being prepared with a higher sample size to allow for subjects failing to attend would leave the study with very few subjects to test, therefore increasing the numbers to more than what was needed prepared any unsuspecting drop outs if they occurred. The warm up in the land based exercise group involved about four minutes of stationary cycling. The strengthening exercises included seated bench press, hip adduction and abduction, knee extension, and double leg press. It can be suggested that the strength exercises for land based focused more on lower limb and quadricep muscles such as double leg press with a resistance of 10 RM compared to hydrotherapy which was more focused on ROM and hip exercises such as hip extension and flexion, knee extension and flexion, hip abduction and adduction and knee cycling. It would be expected that land based groups quadricep muscles would be stronger as their exercises were more related to strengthening this area. As one of this studys major testing methods was to test the strength of the quadriceps, it should have focused on more quadriceps strengthening exercises for the water based group to complete to ensure both groups were evenly distributed with similar exercises. One of the strengths of this study was that the exercise intensity between the two intervention groups were closely matched as much as possible. However, it was stated that progressive overloading of the musculature and loading through the eccentric phase of muscle contraction is not possible in water as it is on land. Therefore, the exercise intensity would not have been as high in the water based group, hence the greater increases in strength are seen in the gym group. To balance this difference, the hydrotherapy program had an underlying aerobic training component, as higher and faster repetitions were used to increase the exercise intensity. Furthermore, the hydrotherapy group continuously worked for the full half hour session, moving immediately from one exercise to the next. Although this helped to keep both mediums on a level field, a limitation to this modification was that the water based participants heart rates were not measured suggesting that it may have been difficult to assess if they were exercising at a higher and more vigorous intensity compared to the land based exercise group. Furthermore, the land based group participants may have been exercising with just as much intensity as the water based group which would suggest they would be doing even more work than the water based group. It can be suggested that one of the limitations of this study was that it may have been too short in duration of the entire study. Only running for 6 weeks may have been too little time to be able to show obvious improvements within the subjects lower limb strength and aerobic endurance levels. Although improvements were seen with both groups it may have been beneficial to continue to a longer period for further improvements to be shown. Another limitation to this study was that only participants who could provide their own transport to the rehabilitation hospital where the study took place three times a week were eligible to take part in the trial. This would have made it difficult for those who may have wanted to participate but were excluded due to not being able to drive. Having osteoarthritis in the knee and hip joints may prevent some subjects from driving therefore limiting them form taking part in this trial. It may be beneficial for this study to have the hospital organise transportation services for subjects that would have been eligible to participate but were unable to due to transportation. This article has high relevance to the guiding question as it is based closely on comparing hydrotherapy to land based exercises and shows that hydrotherapy is just as effective when dealing with osteoarthirtis as land based exercises. Article 2 Harmor, A, Naylor, J, Crosbie, J, Russell, T, 2009. Land-Based Versus Water-Based Rehabilitation Following Total Knee Replacement: A Randomized, Single-Blind Trial. Arthritis Rheumatism (Arthritis Care Research), 61, 184-191. The aim of this article is to compare outcomes between land-based and water-based exercise programs delivered in the early subacute phase up to 6 months after total knee replacement. This study was a randomized single-blind trial of patients undergoing physiotherapy after primary total knee replacement surgery was conducted in a metropolitan public hospital. All patients provided voluntary, written informed consent prior to study enrollment and were allocated into either land based or water based program with the use of a random number generator. Outcome measures were assessed at baseline (2 weeks post surgery), after 6 weeks of rehabilitation treatment, and at 26 weeks post surgery. It was determined that a sample size of 40 patients per group would provide 80% power to detect a 20% difference between groups in 6-minute walk distance, at a significance level of P 0.05. Therefore, 102 patients were recruited to allow for a 25% dropout rate. This was a positive implication made by the conductors of the study as there were several subjects that were unable to complete the full 26 week trial. The primary outcome measured at each assessment was the 6-Minute Walk test and the secondary outcomes were stair climbing power (SCP), the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities (WOMAC) Osteoarthritis Index, a visual analog scale (VAS) for pain in the operated knee, passive knee joint range of motion (ROM), and edema of the knee. One of the strengths of using the 6-Minute Walk as the primary outcome measurement was because it has a high efficiency of test–retest reliability and responsiveness after total knee replacement and permits decision making at an individual patient level. It was also beneficial because as the clients were recovering from knee replacement surgery, it was a non invasive, less intense outcome measure test. The patient is able to walk at their own pace and does not involve using an extreme amount of strength and effort which could put a high amount of pressure of their effected area. Walking not only allows the patients to become well practiced with their gait mobility but as it was re tested, did not put a high amount of pressure on the patient as it did not involve high amounts of pain on the newly replaced knee. This functional test for mobility-impaired older adults, in whom leg power is more important than strength for mobility, may be an optimal tool for measuring the magnitude of impairment and effects of therapy, and stair climb power test has good reliability and responsiveness after total knee replacements. Although the stair climb power test is a reliable test it can be suggested that it may be slightly dangerous and strenuous for elderly patients to complete especially after undergoing knee replacement surgery. 8 flights of 10 steps may seem daunting for elderly individuals especially if they need to use gait aid up and down the stairs which could become uncomfortable and awkward, therefore this test could have been modified to a smaller amount of steps instead of a large flight of stairs or another test that tests lower limb power could have been used in its place such as sit to stand test. In addition to the group exercise programs, all patients were instructed on a simple home exercise program, which was recommended to be undertaken daily and consisted of general active ROM exercises and walking as tolerated. However it was discovered that the home exercise program compliance was not formally monitored nor was the intensity of the exercises stated for the home program. Therefore it cannot be certain that the exercise prescription was similar for both land based and water based groups or even of sufficient amount to generate physiologic change. As the home exercises were not monitored it could be suggested that not all participants even completed the program on a daily basis while at home. If these home programs were monitored and logged by the subjects and also were made clear with the correct intensity to use this may have altered the results of the study and could have benefited the subjects further by improving in the measured outcome tests. One of the positives of this study was that during the outcome measures the patients were assessed by a blinded assessor so there was no bias shown to either group. However, this could also have been a weakness within the study as it was discovered that on a few occasions unblinding assessments occurred due to the initial blinded assessor being absent. This could have effected the outcome measure results for those particular tests that were held by the unblinded assessors. These results could have then effected the final results of the study favouring more so to one particular group. Another strength of this study was that most of the passive lower limb measurements were able to be re tested during the middle and end of the study and would be reliable tests. Knee edema was estimated by circumferential measurements at 4 locations (apex, midline, superior border, and 4 cm proximal to the superior border of the patella) with the knee in extension. The 4 measures were averaged for each knee and used as the knee edema outcome measure. These measurements which were very precise and specific to the affected area and would be a beneficial test to note the improvements and changes made around the affected knee area. An exclusion in this study which may have resulted in being a limitation to the trial was that there was no control group. Which would have made it difficult to compare the two trial groups as there was nothing to compare them to besides each other. It could suggest that having a control group would have made it easier to see improvements of each trial group compared to those who did not participate in either group. It could have provided a comparison to those who underwent knee replacement surgery and were not doing any physical activity program during the subacute stage. This may have showed actual significance of participating in physical activity compared to being sedentary and provided an indication if the subjects in the study were actually improving due to the exercises or if it was only due to their natural healing process. One of the limitations to this study was that during the water based program the hydrotherapy pool that was used was heated to a mean SD temperature of 25Â °C. Generally, the temperature should be increased to approximately 32–36Â °C for hydrotherapy for patients with knee and hip arthritis and recommended for reducing musculoskeletal stiffness. It was discovered that hydrotherapy could have produced more favourable results if the pool temperature was warmer. Not only would it have been more beneficial for the patients with their rehabilitation and recovery for reducing muscle stiffness but would have felt far more comfortable in the warmer water which would have made the program more inviting, hence reducing the nu mber of drop outs in the study. Another limitation involved in this trail was that patients who were not proficient in English were excluded from answering the WOMAC questionnaires which were used by the patients to answer questions in relation to pain, stiffness and functionality. Therefore this resulted in 8 participants in the land based and 9 in the water based groups that were excluded from this part of the study. This became a limitation because patients of language were able to be included in this study up until the questionnaires and reviews were being conducted. Furthermore, it could be suggested that having an interpreter or family member to assist with asking the patient the questions would ensure they were given the opportunity to complete the WOMAC questionnaire just as all the other participants had and may have even changed or effected the results slightly by there answers. Following the questionnaires, complications from the study were monitored up to 26 weeks post surgery using a standardized question form administered through a patient interview at review clinics or via a followup phone call after discharge. By reviewing the patients with a question form, it can indicate that those of non English speaking background would be again excluded from this part of the study. However, if these patients were still asked the questions the patient may not have fully understood the questions and given an incorrect answer. Furthermore the patient themselves may have questions they would like to ask the physical therapist about their recovery and would not be abel to communicate that across to the therapists. Therefore having someone who can understand them would be beneficial. . Follow up phone calls over the phone only allows for subjective assessments to be made which could lead to serious concerns if the reviewer is unable to see the patient. The patient may need to be further assessed or monitored objectively to ensure they are progressing throughout the study and finished the study without any further damage occurring and to ensure they are not in any pain due to the exercise program. The reviewer needs to see the patients surgical area to ensure the area has not been harmed or declined in the healing process from the studys exercise regime and to ensure they have recovered well after the program. It can be presumed that interviewing over the phone could be dangerous and too risky to assess the patients and should be sought out to ensure all reviews are done in person. Allowing patients who may not be fluent in English to participate in the study, may result in misinterpreting important information when reviewing patients or even while they are participating in the sessions. Again, having an interpreter on hand for those who are unable to communicate well enough with the assessors and instructors would be beneficial for both parties to ensure all information is passed on correctly with no misunderstandings occurring. This article was closely based on the guiding question as it gives a specific look at whether hydrotherapy is as effective or even more effective for patients recovering from a knee replacement to improve their gait mobility and knee range of motion. Article 3 Silva, L, Valim, V, Pessanha, A, Oliveira, L, Myamoto, S, Jones, A, Natour, J, 2007. Hydrotherapy Versus Conventional Land-Based Exercise for the Management of Patients With Osteoarthritis of the Knee: A Randomized Clinical Trial . Physical Therapy, 88, 12-21. The aim of this article was to evaluate the effectiveness of hydrotherapy in subjects with osteoarthritis of the knee compared with subjects with osteoarthritis of the knee who performed land-based exercises. This study was a randomized clinical trail where patients with osteoarthritis of the knee were selected from the Rheumatology Outpatient Clinics at SÃ £o Paulo Hospital and were invited to participate in this study. Sixty-four participants were included in the study. Thirty-two participants (30 female, 2 male) were randomly assigned to the water-based exercise group, and 32 participants (29 female, 3 male) were randomly assigned to the land-based exercise group. A noticeable difference is the very high number of females in the study, this could suggest that it was a limitation as it may have been beneficial use more male participants to have an even distribution of both genders as this may have effected the results and the outcomes of the tests. Within this study both programs had the same types of exercise were used for both. Land based exercises were adapted to be performed underwater in order to exercise the same muscles. The exercises used for both groups included stretching and strengthening of the major muscle groups of the lower limbs, as well as gait training. Both groups had 50 minute training sessions 3 times a week for 18 weeks. This suggests a strength of the study as having the same type of program for both groups would even both groups and by using the same muscle groups throughout the entire programs allows for an balanced investigation where no groups is focusing more on one aspect of their body. This allows to truly investigate which medium actually is more effective when testing the muscular strength and mobility of the lower limbs. An area of limitation was the lack of a control group to compare with the 2 exercise treatment groups. The authors did however take not having a control group into consideration, and stated that because there is considerable evidence that land based exercises are effective in patients with osteoarthritis of the knee, they decided to compare hydrotherapy with the gold standard of exercise intervention. However, the lack of a control group meant that it was unable to determine whether the improvements in both groups resulted from exercise or other factors, such as the duration of therapy or the degree of participant attention or motivation. Nevertheless, it was believed that most of the improvement seen was attributable to the interventions used, as osteoarthritis is a degenerative disease and would be expected to cause a progressive worsening of the participants’ conditions. It may still have been beneficial to include a control group to prove that their study was accurate and improvements were actually made due to the exercise programs. The reduction in pain found in both groups is a very important benefit for such patients. Although we believe that this improvement occurred due to the strengthening of the leg muscles, we cannot affirm this due to the fact that we did not directly assess the strength of these muscles, as our primary objective was to assess improvement regarding pain and quality of life. We had expected pain to decrease more in the water-based exercise group than in the land-based exercise group. However, reductions in pain were found in both groups, thereby failing to demonstrate a greater benefit in the water-based exercise group and showing that water-based exercise is a real option for patients with OA of the knee. A positive of this studys method was that when assessing pain, it was assessed at the time of evaluation instead of assessing the pain experienced during the previous week. It suggests that this method may be a better representation of the pain experienced during daily activities compared to measuring pain experienced during the previous week. This is a positive outcome as it provides the assessors with answers to their patients pain as it was occurring and did not have to try and recall how they felt after their previous sessions. At times, pain can be present and concerning the patient however once it has been relieved it becomes forgotten and assessors may consider this valuable information about their pain levels. Another strength of this study was the use of the number of NSAIDs as a good quality measure for the assessment of pain. Patients were allowed to use sodium diclofenac to relieve pain during their sessions, however, it was discovered that the use of this medication was decreased significantly in both groups by the third month of the study, and a further reduction was seen in the fourth month in the water-based exercise group. Overall, a 50% reduction in sodium diclofenac use was observed by the end of the study. This was an effective and precise way of determining the patients pain levels throughout the study. From this it could be proven that patients pain levels were decreasing due to their exercise programs and the decrease in pain relief intake. This article was of close relevance to the guiding question as it provided information relating to the effectiveness of hydrotherapy compared to land based exercises. It proved that hydrotherapy was as effective as land based programs through pain level testing for patients with osteoarthritis. Summary In all three articles patients improved equally well in most outcome measures comparing land based with hydrotherapy. In the first article is was stated that neither mode was clearly superior to the other as both showed improvements and gained strength. Similarly, the second article showed findings of both being effective ways of treating lower limb conditions. However, not one medium was more superior than the other. The final article indicate that water based and land based exercises reduced pain and improved function in patients with osteoarthritis of the knee and that water based exercise was superior to land based exercise for relieving pain before and after walking. These studies findings indicated that hydrotherapy is a suitable and effective way of exercising for patients with lower limb conditions as water buoyancy reduces the weight that joints, bones and muscles have to bear. Aquatic exercises have been widely used in physical therapy programs, especially when exercising under normal conditions of gravity is difficult and painful. Water buoyancy reduces the weight that joints, bones, and muscles have to bear. The warmth and pressure of the water also reduce swelling and increase blood circulation. Consequently, an underwater environment allows early active mobilization and dynamic strengthening. Reflection on Process On reflection of this process, there were many challenges that were presented. Throughout analysing the articles more knowledge may have been needed when critiquing the statistical analysis of the articles. Being able to find positives and negatives within the results areas of the articles proved to be difficult. Some of the barriers that occurred during this process was that not all relevant articles that proved to be interesting and closely matched the guiding question were unable to be viewed in full. This proved to be a difficult process and only some articles were found in the VU Library that had full text available.

Mainframe computer Essay Example for Free

Mainframe computer Essay Hardware and Software Components BUS 210 July 8, 2011 Brian Wirpsa Axia College Material Appendix E Hardware/Software Components In your own words, describe the following hardware/software components Legacy systems| The legacy systems are the IT system as a whole for a company. The legacy system is computers, hardware, and software needed to run an IT system. | Mainframe computers| Mainframe computers were the hub of a company’s IT system information. They were large, used mostly for number crunching, and only accessible by company managers. Later, although they remained expensive minicomputers were made that were used for word processing, and more readily available for other function departments to use. | Microprocessors| Microprocessors are the software components that help to make the personal computer possible. Microprocessors are essentially the brains inside of a pc. | PCs| PC’s or personal computers are much smaller than mainframe computers and made for individual use. They were computers that use software that any individual can use and within a business held a connection to the company’s mainframe. Network computers| Network computers act as the middleman in the communication between the pc and a company’s mainframe. This group of pc’s connection to the mainframe server called a â€Å"land area network† acts as a landline for the network of computers located in the same building. | World Wide Web and Internet| The world wide web is a connection worldwide to any and every computer in the world. The world wide web allowed information to be transferred to and from anywhere in the world via the internet. With wires, cables, Ethernet wires, and routers is how The internet was able to transfer information. | Wired and wireless broadband technology| Wired broadband technology is the use of the internet through wires that transmit data at a slow speed. Like a tunnel, wired internet technology must move slowly through the small space provided by the wiring. Wireless technology uses no wiring, therefore that tunnel is now wide open with more space and room for data to transfer at a higher rate of speed. PC software PC software is the brains that operate the computer. PC software is what is used to connect all functions of a computer together to work such as the hardware components and the software itself. | Networking software| Networking software is the second brain for a computer that allows it to connect to a company’s servers and company pc’s. | Computer security software | Computer security software is the protective shield or skull for a computer that prevents outsiders from entering a computer system and taking vital information.

Anxiety interpretation

Anxiety interpretation Introduction Winning is the ultimate goal for performance success amongst elite athletes, and approaches to achieve a competitive edge and optimise sporting performances are eagerly sought after. Facilitative interpretation of anxiety symptoms to impending performance is one recognised attribute of individuals of a higher performance status, and empirical support substantiates this relationship (Jones, Hanton, Swain 1994; Jones Swain, 1995). One approach to attaining a more facilitative interpretation of anxiety is through using a combination of psychological skills (Hanton Jones, 1999a, 1999b; Thomas, Maynard, Hanton, 2007). Findings emphasise the role of cognitive restructuring strategies, such as goal-setting, to elicit positive interpretations. However, the debate over which psychological skills comprising multi-modal interventions are responsible for the favoured anxiety appraisals remains debatable (Fletcher Hanton, 2002). More specifically, recent advancements have identified individual psychological skills which promote positive competitive-anxiety responses (OBrien, Mellalieu, Hanton, 2009; Wadey Hanton, 2007, 2008), yet the mechanisms underlying how and why athletes interpret their anxiety levels as positive are still inconclusive. If athletes can develop their ability to perceive anxiety in a more positive manner, they are more likely to benefit from the accompanied performance advantage. Anxiety, traditionally believed to be a negative determinant of performance, has now become recognised as a stimulant (Jones Hanton, 1996). In response to this dual-anxiety response, Jones (1991) argued that the traditional measure of multi-dimensional anxiety, the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) (Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump, Smith, 1990), restricted the measurement of anxiety response to â€Å"intensity† levels only; (cited in Jones Swain 1995). In response, Jones and Swain (1992) developed the modified version of the CSAI-2 in which a directional scale was collaborated. This broadened the approach adopted to measure intensity and perception of symptoms which were believed to mark the presence of anxiety. In an attempt to explain anxiety interpretation differences, Jones (1995), proposed a model of control, whereby athletes anxiety interpretation was governed by the confidence in their ability to control behaviour and the environment in which to achieve their goals. The model explains that a more positive expectancy of goal attainment is resultant of perceived control and ability to cope, and this generates a more facilitative interpretation of anxiety. This concept of control stemmed from Carver and Scheier (1988) research, who proposed that an athletes interpretation relies on their belief of being able to cope with anxiety levels and having the competency to meet the demands of the task. A wealth of research has based findings on Jones (1995) theoretical framework, whereby positive expectancies of goal attainment and facilitative appraisals of anxiety are inextricably wedded (Jones Hanton, 1999a; Jones Hanton, 1996; Wadey Hanton, 2008). Findings reported by Vealey, Hayashi, Garner-Holman, GiacobbiVealey et al. (1998) reinforces the connectivity of the components within Jones model (1995), in that the perception of self-control has been identified as the second most important source of self-confidence for athletes. Sources of self-confidence are vast and well documented (for a review see Bandura 1977, 1986, 1997; Vealey et alVealey, Hayashi, Garner-Holman, Giacobbi, 1998), and the challenge is to now determine those behaviours which are most conducive to self-confidence increments. The importance of self-confidence has been well-documented, and as one of the most important attribute to athletes, it also discriminates between elite and non-elite performers (Feltz, 1988). Previous studies have suggested that self-confidence functions as a buffer to experiencing debilitative anxiety levels (Hanton, Mellalieu, Hall, 2004). Findings reveal that athletes with superior levels of self-confidence consistently reported positive directional interpretations of the experienced anxiety (Jones et al., 1994), which lends partial support to Jones model (1995). Qualitative research by Hanton et al. (2004) which limited the assessment of strategy use to self-talk, thought control and imagery suggested, suggested that self-confidence ultimately gave rise to a sense of control over athletes performance. Further, self-confidence appeared to override negative thoughts and encouraged coping expectances; thereby was akin to an internal reassurance mechanism. Hanton et al. (2004) results also reported that confidence levels were associated with increases in effort and motivation, which allowed a more facilitative perception. This endorsed Eysenck and Calvos (1992) processing efficiency theory (PET) which proposed that high levels of confidence prevented high levels of cognitive anxiety from impairing performance through promoting motivation and effort investment to ultimately increase concentration levels. Given that Bandura (1977) believes engaging in behaviour enhances the self-confidence in ones ability of that behaviour, it is plausible to suggest that engaging in effective self-control processes may enhance athletes perception of their ability to control. The ability to self-control or self-regulate comprises the capability to manage ones affect, behaviour and cognitions to attain goals, and is suggested to be most necessary when faced with challenges or habitual actions are disrupted (Karoly, 1993). According to Karoly, (1993) â€Å"self-regulation refers to those processes, internal and/or transactional, that enable an individual to guide his/her goal-directed activities over time and across changing circumstances (contexts)† (p. 25). This is an independent process, and therefore success is most likely to be attributed internally, which according to Weiner (1979) will provide a source of greater motivation and self-confidence. A central self-regulatory behaviour according to Bandura (1991) is goal-setting. Bandura proposes goal-setting guides individuals behaviours, cognitions and affects to attain their desired performance standards. In essence, goal-setting provides a self-referenced benchmark against current performance which promotes self-evaluative and positive adaptive behaviour. Goals have also been suggested to enhance athletes motivation, effort, concentration and self-confidence (Gould, 2006). These subsequent self-reactive responses may therefore be targeted to align current behaviour with desired outcomes and assist in enhancing performance. Upon attainment of goals, mastery and personal capabilities in sport-specific skills are defined and awareness of success is heightened. Evidently goals maximise individuals opportunities to experience self-satisfaction, and therefore can function as a prospective pre-determinant of self-confidence. According to Zimmerman (1999), consistent self-regulated learners will assign explicit process and outcome goals, and express elevated self-confidence levels. Given that performance accomplishment is the most superior source of self-efficacy to athletes (Bandura, 1997), this may explain and strengthen the intimacy that has been associated between goal-setting and self-confidence. Synergistically, athletes with greater self-confidence levels have been shown to set more challenging goals and express greater commitment to attaining these goals (Bandura, 1991; Locke Latham, 1990; Wood Bandura, 1989). Bandura (1991) endorses the role of self-confidence as an important element of self-regulation and this has been supported by previous research in sport (Kane, Marks, Zaccaro, Blair, 1996; Williams, Donovan, Dodge, 2000). In view of the relationships between self-control, self-confidence and anxiety interpretation; consideration of the self-regulatory processes which are encompassed within goal-setting may help to ‘unmuddy the waters regarding the prospective underlying mechanisms to anxiety appraisal. The goal-setting process is facilitated by self-monitoring, which is another sub-function of Banduras self-regulation theory (1991). Self-monitoring is in essence observing and surveying ones own performance and results (Zimmerman, 2006), and has been positively related to improved physical learning and performance (Martin Ashnel, 1995; Zimmerman Kitsantas, 1996). Self-monitoring stimulates athletes to self-evaluate and thereby recognise favourable patterns between effective psychological states and successful performance outcomes, which in-turn provides a sense of ‘self-insight. Furthermore, this may guide behavioural change if performance was impaired or encourage the behavioural repetition if performance was enhanced. Consequently, self-monitoring offers opportunities for self-evaluation towards goal attainment, which reflects its self-diagnostic function. Previously it has been shown that self-monitoring, especially if positive, serves as a source of self-confidence (Bouc hard-Bouchard, 1990; Zimmerman Schunk, 2001; Martin Anshel, 1995). Moreover, the self-monitoring capability of athletes, both individually (Kim, 1999) and as a team (Kim Cho, 1996), influences corresponding performance expectations and the belief of mastery (as cited in Bechenke, 2002). Anxiety interpretation is most likely to arise through self-evaluative behaviours. Self-evaluation allows the analysis of the behaviour and accompanied outcomes, and is a subsequent sub-function following self-monitoring. This allows the athlete to determine whether to repeat this behaviour, if self-evaluation was positive, or set in motion a state of corrective change to attain future self-satisfaction, if this judgement was unfavourable (Bandura, 1991). The self-belief in goal mastery proceeds to influence the evaluative and reactive reactions to goal accomplishment or failure. Those of greater self-confidence evaluate failure to reach their goals as a motivator to continue striving. Subsequently they react to reduce the incongruity, by investing more effort and adopting more strategies to enhance the likelihood of goal mastery (Bandura Cervone, 1986). Complementary to these findings, self-confident individuals are predominantly more proactive in their self-reactions to goal accomplishment (Bandura, 1991). That is, once their goal has been mastered, they raise the bar further by introducing another challenging goal, which functions to progress performance improvements. Furthermore, Carver and Scheier (1986, 1988, 1998) have examined the means by which self-confidence effects self-regulatory behaviours. Their research reveals that when progression to goal mastery is hindered and becomes difficult, those with greater self-confidence in coping will react to anxiety levels positively, with renewed effort and concentration to their aspirations (as cited in Hanton et al. (2004). Jones and Hanton (1996) examined competitive anxiety symptoms with regard to goal attainment expectancies prior to competition. Findings demonstrated that competitive swimmers with positive expectations of goal-attainment found their anxiety symptoms were more facilitative to performance, than athletes with negative or uncertain goal expectations. These findings reflect equivalent reports by Hanton and Jones (1999a). This is in align with Jones (1995) control model and re-iterates the beneficial responses to positive goal-expectancies, which may be underpinned by higher self-confidence levels and consequent positive anxiety appraisals. Therefore, appropriate goal-setting is also paramount to optimise athletes expectancies of goal attainment to favour positive anxiety interpretation. Bandura (1991) suggests that acknowledgement of performance progress, influences individuals forthcoming behaviour, stimulates further goal setting and evaluative responses; thus goal-setting is a stimulant for other behavioural responses and appears to be a pivotal facet of self-regulation. Therefore there appears to be an overlapping effect between self-regulatory processes and self-confidence, in particular the goal-setting process. The strong predictive effects between goal-setting and self-confidence lends reasons to propose that goal-setting may be the most dependable predictor of self-confidence amongst other self-regulatory processes; this as yet remains indefinite. Evidence lends support to the role of goal-setting and positive interpretations of anxiety. Wadey and Hanton (2008) and OBrien et al. (2009) endorse the beneficial competitive-anxiety response with gaol-setting interventions. Wadey and Hanton (2008) has hinted that self-confidence and associated effort, motivation, concentration and perceived control may play a role to explain the positive anxiety response and goal-setting, however the mediatory role of self-confidence is as yet unconfirmed. Although Jones explanatory model (1995) and aforementioned research endorse the role self-confidence and perception of self-control plays in anxiety appraisal, they fail to acknowledge, identify and explain which self-regulatory behaviours allow self-confidence to override debilitating interpretations and why this relationship exists. In review of the literature five key self-regulatory processes have emerged and were measured using the Self Regulation in Sport Questionnaire (SRSQ); goal-setting, regulatory-responses, self-monitoring, self-awareness and self-talk. This was the first study to use this questionnaire and assess self-regulation, as a holistic process and differentiate between the key processes. The sources of self-confidence have been extensively reported, yet the variances by which self-regulatory processes contribute to self-confidence have not been compared. This questionnaire will allow the specific sub-functions of self-regulation that may enhance self-confidence to be determined. Previous studies report that elite athletes self-regulate more than their non-elite counterparts (Cleary Zimmerman, 2001; Anshel Porter, 1996), which is not surprising considering elites superior use of psychological skills (Thomas, Murphy, Hardy 1999).,. Therefore the self-confidence derived from these skills is likely to vary, thus competitive level is an important variable to control in this study. The Finally, the role of goal-setting, conceptualised as a self-regulatory behaviour , as a regulatory behaviour on anxiety interpretation willcan be investigated, which extends Hanton et al., (2004) study by including goal-setting as a strategy. . In essence, this study serves to discover if engaging in goal-setting has an indirect effect on anxiety interpretation by enhancing self-confidence. Specifically, it proposes to discriminate which facets of self-regulation are utilised to foster self-confidence, and thereby potentially mediate the competitive anxiety response interpretation. It is hypothesised that goal-setting will be the superior predictor of self-confidence, which in turn will mediate the relationship between goal-setting behaviours and anxiety interpretation. It is expected that self-confidence will be a positive partial mediator of facilitative anxiety interpretation.

Racism - After The Civil War Essay -- essays research papers

The conclusion of the Civil War in favor of the north was supposed to mean an end to slavery and equal rights for the former slaves. Although laws and amendments were passed to uphold this assumption, the United States Government fell short. The thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth amendments were proposed and passed within five years of the Civil War’s conclusion. These amendments were to create equality throughout the United States, especially in the south where slavery had been most abundant. Making equality a realization would not be an easy task. This is because many problems were not perceived before and during the war. The reunification of the country would prove to be harder than expected, and entry into a new lifestyle would be difficult for both the freedmen and their former oppressors. The thirteenth amendment clearly prohibits slavery in the United States. All slaves were to be freed immediately when this amendment was declared ratified in December of 1865, but wh at were they to do? Generations of African-Americans had been enslaved in America, and those who had lived their whole lives in slavery had little knowledge of the outside world. This lack of knowledge would not be helpful in trying to find work once they were released. Plantation owners with a lack of workforce were eager to offer extremely low pay to their former slaves. In addition, the work force of the plantation would often live in the same quarters they did while enslaved. These living condition...

Sub-Saharan Africa Essay -- Africa Geography Essays Geographical

Sub-Saharan Africa Africa is the second largest of the earth's seven continents, covering about twenty-two percent of the world's total land area. From its northern most point, to its southern most tip is the distance of nearly five thousand miles. Africa is both north and south of the equator. The Atlantic Ocean is located west of the continent, and the Indian Ocean is on the east. Width of the continent is also nearly five thousand miles. Although Africa is so large, much of it is inhabitable. Desert soils, which have little organic content, cover large areas. The Sahara Desert, in the northern part, covers more than one fourth of Africa, and the Kalahari Desert is in the southern part of the continent. These two deserts are a natural detriment to the African continent because they make it difficult to reach the inland where most of the people live. Although Africa is relatively close to Europe, travel by land over the Sahara desert is very prohibitive. Another topographical feature that also isolate s the central region of Africa is the coastline. Africa has a regular coastline characterized by few indentations. Because of the smooth coastline, natural harbors were non-existent. Today, however, there are important coastal cities, such as Lagos and Dakar. With the exception of the Mediterranean coast, most of the coastline is low-lying , generally narrow and rising sharply to high elevations. The African climate and topography varies greatly. Although temperatures are usually high, due to being so close to the equator, rainfall, soil quality and elevations are of various degrees. Because most of the African continent has not been covered by water for millions of years, soils have developed according to their weathering e... ...bances began to emerge, and the economy began to drop. Unrest cost many lives, until demands for change were heard and the political system was revised. In 1994, the South African people went to the polls for the first time and held a democratic election in which Nelson Mandela became president. The country of South Africa has made strides in healing their broken country. Economic ways started in the nineteenth century, still have a hold on the countries of the sub-Sahara today. These countries are all impoverished and have seen horrific civil wars, however, the general consensus is that they are making slow improvements in their economy. The starvation, overpopulation and health problems are still very evident. Perhaps continued assistance coupled with education and protection will keep them on the road to stability and more rewarding lives for their citizens.

Harriet Tubman : Walk to Freedom Essay examples -- slaves, antislavery,

Imagine a girl and her two little brothers, toes on the edge of the sidewalk; children trying to cross a street. As a big sister, she must go first. She takes a few steps ever so carefully, looking both ways, showing her younger brothers the way. She makes it to the other side of the street then turns to wave them over, telling them to follow exactly what she did and they too would make it across safely. The two little boys take a few steps just like their sister had done, looking both ways, but they are very scared. There are cars coming and they feel they might not make it in time, so they hurry back to the safe side of the street that they had first been on. After the first try, the boys are too frightened to try again by themselves, so their older sister crosses the street again, takes the boys by the hands and leads them to the other side. That is exactly how Harriet Tubman lived her life. During her first plan to escape slavery, she went on her way with two of her brothers. Har riet reached safety, but her brothers had turned back halfway to freedom. After that incident, Harriet Tubman devoted her life to helping slaves cross the street to freedom. THESIS With a past childhood surrounded with slavery, Harriet Tubman grew up with the need to make a difference; after years of smuggling slaves to freedom, her impact on antislavery changed the nation. Topic Sentence 1 †¢ After the combining of two plantations, two slaves had a child that would one day change the face of slavery completely. †¢ When two slave owners, Pattison Brodess and Anthony Thompson, got married, their plantations combined bringing two of their slaves together. Eventually the slaves got married as well and had a child. FIRST BODY Harriet Tubman was born in ... ...Home. Bookman, Ron. Web. 15 November 2013. . â€Å"Harriet Tubman.† 2013. n. pag. About.com Inventors. Vogel, Neil. The Library of Congress. Web. 15 November 2013. . Hickey, Claire. â€Å"Black History Month: Harriet Tubman – Champion of Freedom.† 4 February 2012. n. pag. The Washington Times. The Washington Times, LLC. Web. 20 November 2013. . Eversley, Melanie. â€Å"Harriet Tubman Changed History with Bravery.† 17 May 2011. n. pag. USA Today. Jones, Brent. Web. 18 November 2013 . â€Å"What Harriet Tubman Teaches Us Today.† 2011. n. pag. Black History Heroes. Cross, V. M. Web. 20 November 2013. . â€Å"Harriet Tubman. Biography.† 1996-2013: 1-3. Bio. Raven, Abbe. Web. 21 November 2013. .

Response Paper

Blue Collar Workers Have Brains Too Throughout our modern society there has always been a cultural divide between the upper class of white collar workers who have received higher education, and the blue collar workforce who make up the middle and lower class of society. It is the assumption of the white collar class that the blue collar force are a simple minded group who rely on manual labor jobs because they don’t possess the intelligence necessary to make it in the white collar world.In his article â€Å"Blue Collar Brilliance,† Mike Rose discussed how the working class of blue collar workers is often underestimated and not given enough credit from their white collar counterparts. He states that through his research and observations, the blue collar workers indeed exercise significant intelligence in their work, and that they shouldn’t be shrugged off by those of a higher social class simply because of their placement on the occupational ladder. Rose described that he was raised in a blue collar family, but that he sought a higher education a means for fulfillment and to make a solid living.What I found interesting were his observations through his studies after graduate school. Rose states, â€Å"Intelligence is closely associated with formal education-the type of schooling a person has, how much and how long-and most people seem to move comfortably from that notion to a belief that work requiring less schooling requires less intelligence† (Rose, 247) I agree with Rose in this statement because of my experience growing up, I was always taught that success in this life is tied directly with a formal education.If I wanted to make something of myself, I better go to college. Much to the chagrin of my parents, I put off college and entered the workforce as an apprentice meat cutter. Over the years I have worked my way up and was eventually made the manager of a meat department. I have found that through my experience in that occupati on that I have learned more about business hands on than in any of my business classes. Rose makes an interesting point about the hands on application of such important tools in the working class.He states, â€Å"Though many kinds of physical work don’t require a high literacy level, more reading occurs in the blue-collar workplace than is generally thought, from manuals and catalogues to work orders and invoices, to lists, labels and forms† (Rose, 253) Rose is surely right about that because I have learned more about what it takes to make a successful business with things like how to manage costs and labor, how to regulate your purchases as to meet your sales needs while keeping shrink or loss to a minimum, and how to increase your gross profit margin by streamlining merchandising methods than I ever could in a classroom.He described observing his mother Rosie as a waitress in a diner and all of the mental juggling she displayed in order to keep her customers’ orders organized, the food delivered properly in a timely manner, and make sure they were satisfied and felt important. He also noticed that she was not only a waitress, but often times wore the hat of psychologist in listening to the personal stories of her guests, and catering how she treated them and responded to them as though she was their friend and support system.I agree that the blue collar workforce is often looked down upon by those who have chosen the path of higher education and belong to the white collar workforce because I have been a member of the blue collar crowd for over ten years and can testify that it indeed requires significant skills in order to fulfill those jobs. I have worked in a restaurant for several years and have experienced how difficult it is to multitask and keep every customer happy while juggling several tables and keeping multiple orders organized in my little filing system in my head.It truly requires a special brain to be a server in a restaura nt, to possess the necessary skills as Rosie did with the ability to group tasks together in order of priority and work efficiently in a flowing motion rather than running around in circles barely keeping your wits about you because you can’t keep your proverbial balls juggling in the air. From experience, when you drop one ball or make a mistake, all your other balls usually come crashing down on you. That is what we in the business call â€Å"crashing,† or â€Å"being in the weeds. I have seen such a high turnover of staff that couldn’t manage all the responsibilities and possess the customer service and people skills necessary for when things go wrong. I agree with Rose’s point of how the hat of psychologist is worn while performing those duties because you can completely screw up a persons’ food order but give them exceptional customer service and make them feel special by listening to them, show them genuine empathy and they will tip you well no matter what mistakes are made in their dining experience.I have had several regular customers come into my restaurant and request me as their server because I make them feel special, and I engage in real conversation with them and have subsequently built real friendships with people because of the way I treated them as their server. Nothing made a regular customer feel special like having their beverage of choice delivered to them as soon as they sat down without needing to ask for it. I have had many coworkers ask me how I consistently made better tips than they did, when we are serving essentially the same demographic of clientele.I explain to them the key is to be a good listener such as Rose’s mother was to both verbal and non verbal messages, and do the little things in order to make them feel special and not simply be a robot delivering their food and drinks. Many people assume that servers in restaurants belong to a lower social class, but because of my experience in that industry I agree with Rose that it takes a special person to fulfill those positions.I appreciated Rose’s recognition of the blue collar force as one who possesses significant intelligence; because I am a member of that class and feel that I have often been judged as someone who lacks the necessary intelligence to make it in the white collar world. I applaud his arguments that the blue collar force should no longer be looked down upon as inferior. Works Cited Rose, Mike. â€Å"Blue Collar Brilliance. † â€Å"They Say/I Say†: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing : With Readings. Ed. Gerald Graff, Cathy Birkenstein, and Russel K. Durst. New York: W. W. Norton &, 2012. N. pag. Print.